Taking into account Russell's (1989) seminal observation that abstaining from smoking partially restores sensitivity to nicotine's pharmacological effects, we formulated the sensitivity model of smoking to explain individual differences in nicotine dependence (Pomerleau et al., 1993a; Pomerleau, 1995). Our research demonstrated that abstinent smokers exhibited significantly greater nicotine reactivity than never-smokers — once pharmacokinetic differences based on smoking status were factored out (Pomerleau et al., 1992; 1993b). In related studies, we also found that people who subsequently became highly-dependent smokers reported experiencing significantly more pleasurable sensations upon first experimentation with tobacco (Pomerleau et al., 1998; 1999). Additional support for the sensitivity hypothesis comes from laboratory studies of pleasurable or euphoriant responses to smoking in cigarette smokers in which we asked smokers to indicate hedonic sensations in real time by depressing a button or foot-pedal while smoking (Pomerleau & Pomerleau, 1992; 1994); we found that euphoric responses were produced in a dose-dependent fashion and that the effects were more pronounced after overnight abstinence than following minimal deprivation. Euphoric responses were positively correlated with degree of dependence, suggesting that pleasurable responses continue to be a salient factor in smoking, especially in highly dependent smokers and that such smokers continue to be sensitive to the pleasurable effects of nicotine even though they are tolerant to its aversive effects. More recently, we have conducted systematic examinations of individual differences in the response to nicotine during smoking abstinence (Pomerleau et al., 2000), have continued to explore the differences between smokers and never smokers (Pomerleau et al., 2004a), have examined the contribution of various co-factors on early smoking experiences and withdrawal (Pomerleau et al., 2000; 2004b), and have developed new tools for assessing nicotine's reinforcing effects (Pomerleau et al., 2003; Pomerleau et al., in press).

NRL Publications on Individual Differences in Sensitivity to Smoking

Pomerleau OF, Pomerleau CS, Cameron OG, Harihan M (1992). Sensitivity to nicotine in smokers and never-smokers. In Proceedings of the 54th Annual Scientific Meeting, Committe on Problems on Drug Dependence. vol. (NIDA Research Monograph 132) Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Pomerleau CS, Pomerleau OF (1992). Euphoriant effects of nicotine in smokers. Psychopharmacology 108:460-465.

Pomerleau OF, Collins AC, Shiffman S, Pomerleau CS (1993a). Why some people smoke and others do not: New perspectives. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology 61:723-731.

Pomerleau OF, Hariharan M, Pomerleau CS, Cameron OG, Guthrie S (1993b). Differences between smokers and never-smokers in sensitivity to nicotine: A preliminary report. Addiction 88:113-118.

Pomerleau OF, Pomerleau CS (1994). Euphoriant effects of nicotine. Tobacco Control 3:374.

Pomerleau OF (1995). Individual differences in sensitivity to nicotine: Implications for genetic research on nicotine dependence. Invited article, Behavioral Genetics 25:161-177.

Pomerleau OF, Pomerleau CS, Namenek RJ (1998). Early experiences with nicotine among women smokers, ex-smokers, and never smokers. Addiction 93:597-601.

Pomerleau CS, Pomerleau OF, Namenek RJ, Marks JL (1999). Initial exposure to nicotine in college-age women smokers and never-smokers: A replication and extension. Journal of Addictive Diseases 18:13-19.

Pomerleau CS, Marks JL, Pomerleau OF (2000). Who gets what symptom? Effects of psychiatric cofactors and nicotine dependence on patterns of nicotine withdrawal symptomatology. Nicotine and Tobacco Research 2:275-280.

Pomerleau OF, Pomerleau CS, Marks JL (2000). Abstinence effects and reactivity to nicotine during eleven days of smoking deprivation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2:149-157.

Pomerleau OF, Fagerstrom K-O, Marks JL, Tate JC, Pomerleau CS (2003). Development and validation of a self-rating scale for positive- and negative-reinforcement smoking: The Michigan Nicotine Reinforcement Questionnaire. Nicotine and Tobacco Research 5:711-718.

Pomerleau CS, Pomerleau OF, Snedecor SM, Mehringer AM (2004a). Defining a never-smoker: Results from the Nonsmokers Survey. Addictive Behaviors 29:1149-1154.

Pomerleau CS, Marks JL, Pomerleau OF, Snedecor SM (2004b). Relationship between early experiences with tobacco and early experiences with alcohol. Addictive Behaviors 29:1245-1251.

Pomerleau OF, Pomerleau CS, Mehringer AM, Snedecor SM, Cameron OG (in press). Validation of retrospective reports of early experiences with smoking. Addictive Behaviors.

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